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Keratin is an essential biochemical that belongs to the category of fibrous structural proteins. Structural protein namely keratin is a key biomaterial that helps in making up the outer layer of human skin. Keratin is also a key structural component of nails and hair. The monomers of keratin are crucial to form intermediate filaments as they assemble into various shapes to form bundles. Intermediate filaments formed from keratin are usually insoluble and tough in nature. Keratin proteins also help in forming strong unmineralised tissues which are generally found in birds and reptiles, mammals and amphibians. The only biological material that has the potential to substitute toughness of keratinized tissue is chitin. Like most of the other naturally derived protein biomaterials such as chitin and collagen, keratin also possesses amino acid sequence. Keratin is the biomaterial that is similar to other extracellular matrix that plays a vital role in supporting the cellular attachment, migration and proliferation of the various cells within the body. Keratins are polymers that belong to type III and type IV class of the intermediate filaments. Keratins are mainly found in the genomes of various chordates such as amphioxus, urochordates and vertebrates. The silk fibrions that are widely produced by spiders and insects often belong to the class of keratins. It was theorized that keratin are usually combined into soft, hard or cytokeratins and other keratins. Like most other intermediate filaments keratin proteins form filamentous polymers in a series of assembly steps which mainly begins with dimerization.

Polyalkylene glycol (PAG) is a hydrofluoro carbon (HFC) used in several industries. PAG was developed as an alternative to chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC’s) after the ban because of its harmful effects on ozone layer. PAG is environment friendly and has very low toxicity at operational concentrations.

Iron is usually found in various forms such as magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH), siderite (FeCO3) or limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)). The economically viable forms of iron ore usually contain about 25% and 60% of iron. Ores containing more that 60% of magnetite and hematite are known as natural ore. The ores having very high quantity of hematite are also known as direct shipping ore. Direct shipping ores are those raw materials that can be fed directly into iron-making blast furnaces. However, most of the reserves containing these ores are slowly depleting. Iron ore is used to manufacture pig steel which is further processed to manufacture steel. Thus, iron ore is one of the major raw material used to manufacture steel. Apart from oil, iron ore is expected to be more integral to the global economy than any other commodity. Metallic iron is usually not found directly in the Earth's crust. However, it is found in rare forms of xenoliths and as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites in the deep mantle. Iron is the fourth most abundantly element available in the Earth's crust. Most of the iron is found in silicates and in rare carbonate minerals. Iron ore usually contains host of unwanted elements that are not required in manufacturing of steel. However, the separation process of iron from other minerals requires highly energy intensive technologies.

Adhesives are generally available in synthetic and natural types and are further categorized as reactive and non-reactive forms. Sealants are widely available as a viscous material with very little or no flow for easy penetration of the substrate. Although the basic application of sealants and adhesives is almost the same however, sealants lack strength and elongation as compared to adhesives. Sealants are usually preferred if they are resistant, insoluble and provide appropriate adhesion.

Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material that was first used in the manufacturing of toothbrush bristles. Nylon fiber is a polyamide fiber that is manufactured using dicarboxylic acid and diamine. The two most common nylon fibers are nylon 6 (Polycaprolactam, a cyclic nylon intermediate) and nylon 66 (polyhexamethylene adiamide). Nylon fibers consists the chemical elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Nylon fibers are the condensation copolymers that are manufactured by the reaction of equal parts of diamine and dicarboxylic acid. There are two most common methods used for manufacturing nylon for various fiber applications. One of the approaches includes the molecules having an acidic group reacting with molecules containing amine groups. The resulting nylon is generally named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms present between the two acid groups and the two amine groups. The reaction produces the monomers of intermediate molecular weight which are further reacted to form long polymer chains of nylon fibers. Nylon fibers are hard, strong and water resistant in nature. Nylon fibers find a wide range of applications in the automobile and textile industries.

Tungsten is a commercially important element is naturally found on Earth in form of chemical compounds. Tungsten's important ore includes wolframite and scheelite. Tungsten is the second hardest material after diamond and has a very high melting point. Tungsten is normally mined from underground ores from scheelite or/and wolframite ores. Tungsten and its alloys have diverse commercial applications. Tungsten is primarily used for the production of cemented carbides (hard materials), used for shaping alloys, metals, plastics, wood composites, ceramics as well as construction and mining industry. Tungsten mill products are tungsten alloys or tungsten metal products such as electrodes, filaments, wires, rods, sheets, etc.

Immunoassay is available in different formats and variations in order to suite different requirements. Immunoassay usually involves multiple steps where reagents are added and washed away or separated at different steps of the assay. In some of the immunoassay methods, the reagents are mixed with the sample in order to measure the samples' concentration. Immunoassay techniques are specially used to effectively analyze compounds having extremely low concentrations. Immunoassay reagents are widely employed in pharmaceuticals, clinical and environmental fields.

Osmium was discovered by Smithson Tennant in 1803. Osmium is a bluish-white transition metal that belongs to the transition group. Osmium belongs to the platinum group which is usually found as trace elements in alloys and in most of the ores. Osmium is the densest occurring element in the nature. Osmium has a blue-gray tint and is a highly stable element. Osmium is a hard metal that remains lustrous even at extremely high temperatures. Osmium has a low compressibility and has high bulk modulus. Powdered osmium when exposed to the air becomes highly toxic in nature. Osmium is highly volatile as well as water soluble in nature.

The primary raw materials used in the production process of tires include natural rubber, synthetic rubber, steel cords, nylon tire cord fabrics, cords, carbon black, rubber chemicals, etc. Tires form an integral part of any automobile and are produced in different sizes and shapes depending on the applications they are used in. The tire industry is highly raw material intensive industry, where the costs of tire raw materials account for about three fourths of the tire industry turnover.

The common production processes employed in the hydrogen market are electrolysis of water, coal gasification, partial oxidation (mainly of hydrocarbons), and steam reforming of natural gas. Geographically, the report systematically classifies the hydrogen market into Asia Pacific, North America, Europe, and Rest of the World.